The prediction of psychological distress of prisoners

based on personality traits and dimensions of

spirituality

Sima Mortazavi*

Master of Clinical Psychology, Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch, Tehran, Iran

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study was to prediction of psychological distress prisoners based on personality traits and dimensions

of spirituality. For this purpose, 288 prisoners were selected from Chenaran imprisonment with Simple Random Sam-

pling .The tools used in this study consisted of NEO Five-Factor Inventory, for anxiety, depression, stress (DASS) and

McDonald’s dimensions of spirituality. Data were analyzed using spss software and regression method. The results

showed that two factors for neuroticism and Experimental- Phenomenology dimension of spirituality caused to

increasing of anxiety, depression and stress. While, the dimension of paranormal beliefs led to decreasing of depres-

sion and stress and increasing the anxiety.

KEY WORDS: PERSONALITY, DIMENSIONS OF SPIRITUALITY, PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS, PRISONERS

ARTICLE INFORMATION:

*Corresponding Author: Sima.mortazavi.psy@gmail.com

Received 28

Dec, 2016

Accepted after revision 6

March, 2017

BBRC Print ISSN: 0974-6455

Online ISSN: 2321-4007

Thomson Reuters ISI ESC and Crossref Indexed Journal

NAAS Journal Score 2017: 4.31 Cosmos IF : 4.006

reserved.

Online Contents Available at: http//www.bbrc.in/

INTRODUCTION

The investigating of mental health status of prisoners

and providing services in the  eld of mental health to

them has been concerned of experts in psychiatry and

health of several countries and yet addressed problems

relating to criminals and prisoners specially in its relation

to psychiatric problems is one of the most challenging

of research areas (Arasteh et al., 2008). In recent years,

there is increasing in the prison population in the world-

wide that it is alarm for society (Fazel. . Baillargeon, 2011;

Watson et al., 2004); Now the world’s prison population

is more than 10 million people (Fazel and Siyald, 2012)

and based on the reports that have been published in the

last two decades, it show that people imprisoned dramati-

cally experienced higher rates of mental health problems

compared to the general population, because the impris-

onment could be an important psychological impact on

them (Birmingham, 2004) so that it is raised as a risk fac-

tor for a variety of bad emotional stress.

Biosci. Biotech. Res. Comm. Special Issue No 1:11-18 (2017)

12 THE PREDICTION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS OF PRISONERS BIOSCIENCE BIOTECHNOLOGY RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS

Sima Mortazavi

Also, the prison population improperly faced with

trauma, mental de ciencies and a little ability to deal

with dif culties and statistics have shown that psycho-

logical stress and bottlenecks especially being very high

for people who had been unintentional crime (Durcan,

2008). So that the studies conducted in the prison show

that the onset of mental disorders among prisoners is

higher than in the general population (Albokordi et al.,

2010).

In one of the studies, Ashkani et al (2010) in study

on 200 prisoners reported that 21.21% of them had a

depressive disorder. On the other hand, one can be said

that the harsh prison conditions can be one of the risk

factors for developing of anxiety and threatened mental

health; the prison have unique conditions and features

that is one of the most stressful and anxious conditions

for every human. Studies show that %18-19 of prison-

ers is exposed to basic mental disorders during sentenc-

ing. Also, a study on Iranian prisons indicates that about

5.87% of prisoners are suspected to having a mental dis-

order, stress and anxiety (Almasi et al., 2012).

The presence of these mental distresses that de ned as

a set of symptoms of psycho-physiology and behavioral

such as anxiety, depressive reactions, stress, restlessness

and etc. are result of the interaction between several

different factors. One of the variables that have been

investigated in this study in relation to psychological

distress prisoners is characteristics of personality. Parvin

and John (2001) suggest the following de nition as per-

sonality: “Personality represents those of the person or

people features including its  xed patterns of thought,

emotion and behavioral” (Parvin and John, 2007). In

fact, we can say that the personality is certain patterns

of behavior and ways of thinking that determines how

compatibility of person’s with the environment (Atkin-

son et al., 2009). Joyce and Meredith demonstrated that

there is very strong relationship among health and gen-

eral health and his personality and if a person does not

have the normal growth and development of personality,

it can be said he/she is deprived of mental health (Bono

et al., 2007).

In fact, researchers have con rmed that each charac-

teristic of personality has an impact on health care out-

comes (Baghiani moghadam et al., 2011). Momeni et al

(2012) in a study found that the dimensions of personal-

ity were predicted 44% of the variance in mental health.

There was a signi cant negative correlation between

neuroticism and mental health and there were signi -

cant positive correlation between openness and con-

scientiousness with mental health and there were not

observed signi cant relationship between extraversion

and agreeableness with mental health. Beyrami and

Gholizadeh (2011) in their study concluded that the

experience of depressive symptoms were signi cantly

positively associated with neuroticism. Studies show

that people with high neuroticism evaluate little nega-

tive stimuli just like strong negative pressure. The results

of Baghiani moghadam et al (2011) showed that signi -

cant relationship was observed between public health

and neuroticism.

The analysis of regression also showed that 39% of

public health changes were predicted by neuroticism.

Khanjai et al (2014) also found that three variables of

neuroticism, body image and mental stress are able

to predict the physical and mental health in students.

Steele et al (2008) found in a study in the context of the

relationship between personality traits and well-being

that personality traits were explained 39 to 63 percent of

variance of well-being. In fact, people that in the main

dimensions of personality, extraversion and conscien-

tiousness are high and in the neuroticism are low, have

greater mental health. Ahadi (2007) in a research also

founds that conscientiousness, extraversion and neu-

roticism have signi cant role in predicting of mental

health. Increasing of conscientiousness and extraversion

and decreasing of neuroticism has most signi cantly

relationship with mental health. Irani (2010) also con-

cluded that there is a signi cant positive relationship

between neurosis and anxiety.

Another variable in the study is spirituality. Spiritual-

ity is a term that most commonly used and has differ-

ent meanings for different people in different cultures

and era. Asonigten knows spirituality as outer protests

and function of the human spirit and his de nition of

spirituality is an aspect of human existence which gives

humanity (Aukst-Margetic et al., 2005). Clinical trials

have con rmed on the relationship between spiritual-

ity and health so that there is a signi cant relationship

among spirituality and depression and anxiety disorders

and recently will be more attention in mental health by

certi ed of religious beliefs, because it is known that the

religious beliefs will be inhibiting of negative attitudes

and thus prevented of thought disorder and mental ill-

ness (Ganji et al., 2010). Studies have shown that people

who have high spiritual level, have higher well-being

and happiness, more life satisfaction, and signi cantly

higher purpose, higher self-esteem, more rapid imple-

mentation of mourning, receive more social support and

less alone, less depression and faster recovery rates of

depression, lower levels of suicide, less anxiety, lower

psychosis and more marital stability (Hatami, 2011).

The results of Kazemi et al (2011) showed that there

is a signi cant relationship between depression and

religious beliefs. Nelson (2002) states that undoubt-

edly, faith is most effectiveness treatment for anxiety.

Also Pournamdarian (2012) in their study concluded

that meta-cognitive beliefs, especially negative beliefs

associated with non-controllability have most contribu-

BIOSCIENCE BIOTECHNOLOGY RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS THE PREDICTION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS OF PRISONERS 13

Sima Mortazavi

tion in predicting depression. Also Bahrami et al (2012)

showed that there is signi cant relationship between

spirituality and religiosity and mental health. Spiritu-

ality can be predicted the mental health of people by

increasing ability for dealing with stress, deep under-

standing of the meaning and objectives or reduce the

sense of hopelessness.

Lot , Kashani et al (2012) also found that spiritual

intervention is effective in reducing distress in mothers

of children with cancer. Also, Reyhani et al (2014) in a

study found that the pastoral care training can reduce

psychological stress and increasing distress tolerance

mothers with premature infants in the neonatal intensive

care unit. On the other hand many studies have shown

that the presence of spiritual beliefs and participation

in religious ceremonies resulted in decreased depression

and anxiety among the people (Mohr et al., 2006; Van

Olphen et al., 2003).

Given the mentioned contents, it is important that

does imprisonment healthy exits from jail psychologi-

cally or he/she will be face with disorder rather to pre-

vent from disease severity. The aim of this study is to

provide a context in prison to the paying attention to

predicting personality traits and religious and spirit-

ual thoughts of people exposed at risk of psychologi-

cal distress and to prevent to the disease by improve-

ment of the spiritual atmosphere of the prison and

psychotherapy.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The studied populations were all prisoners of Khorasan

Razavi that were 1400 imprisonments based on statis-

tical reports. According to Morgan table (Kiamanesh,

1195) 300 subjects were randomly selected. Out of the

questionnaires distributed, only 288 completed ques-

tionnaires can be veri ed. The tools used in this study

were:

1. Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21)

questionnaire

This questionnaire was developed in 1995 by Lovibond,

S. H. & Lovibond .The short form version was used in

this study which has 21 items that to be evaluated each

of the depressive mental structures, anxiety and stress

by 7 different items; this questionnaire has been vali-

dated by Sahebi et al (2005) for the addicted Iranian

population. Graford and Henri in England by 1771 sam-

ples compared this tool with two other tools in term of

depression and anxiety and the reliability of the tool

was reported with Cronbach’s alpha for 0.95 depression,

0.90 anxiety and 0.93 stress 0.97 for total scores, In Iran,

Moradipanah, Sahebi and Aghebati has been con rmed

the validity of the scale. It is scored from zero to three

and the range of responses are from never to always so

that Cronbach’s alpha have been reported in the area of

depression for 0.94, anxiety 0.92 and stress 0.82.

2. Five Factor- Personality Inventory (Neo-FFI):

The questionnaire was designed in 1985 by Mckerry

and Costa. The questionnaire contains 60 questions that

measured the  ve main factor of personality and 6 char-

acteristics in each factor, ie 30 characteristics. The ques-

tionnaire was conducted by Mckerry and Costa over 208

American college students within three months that its

validity was obtained 0.83 to 0.75. The questionnaire

was conducted by an Iranian group (2001) over a sample

size of 200 students that the correlation coef cient of

main  ve factors was reported 0.65 to 0.87. Cronbach’s

alpha was found to vary from 0.85, which indicates that

this questionnaire has good reliability. It is scored from

zero to four and the range of responses is from strongly

disagreeing to strongly agree.

3. MacDonald spirituality Questionnaire–scale revised

version

This questionnaire has been prepared by McDonald’s in

1997. This scale has 32 items, which to be measured

generally  ve dimensions of spirituality: Cognitive ori-

entation toward spirituality, the empirical / phenom-

enological spirituality, existential well-being, paranor-

mal beliefs, and religiosity. From 32 items, there are

additional 2 items which considered as indicators of

validity and reliability of response. Its Scoring on  ve

levels from strongly agree to strongly disagree that

gave it a score of 0 to 4 awarded, Cronbach’s alpha of

the scale is in the range of 0.80 to 0.89. Data analy-

sis using the software Spss-19 and using Pearson cor-

relation coef cient and stepwise regression analysis was

performed.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

NEO personality test scores, psychological distress and

spirituality is presented in Table 1.

Some of the variables in the regression test results are

presented in Table 2.

In Table 3, standardized coef cients Beta and zero-

order correlation coef cients, separation and quasi-plot

for predicting anxiety is presented. As you can see the

p is less than 5 (p<.05). Thus, desired components have

an impact on anxiety. Beta coef cient is also positive for

all predictor variables and it means that with increasing

experience, Neurosis and the paranormal, the anxiety

increases.

Sima Mortazavi

14 THE PREDICTION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS OF PRISONERS BIOSCIENCE BIOTECHNOLOGY RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS

Table 1. Descriptive  ndings for anxiety

mean standard deviation number

Anxiety 72639 476849 288

Neurosis 342708 690222 288

Extroversion 317813 427015 288

Experience 373194 372514 288

Agreeableness 402743 544063 288

Conscientiousness 439167 828878 288

Religious orientation 117813 309952 288

Empirical phenomenological 123750 490022 288

Spiritual well-being 139757 348857 288

Paranormal believes 138889 209400 288

Religiosity 114306 332167 288

Table 2. Summary statistics of regression and analysis of variance

model variables resources sum of

squares

Degrees of

Freedom

Mean

Square

F P R Squared R

Experimental

phenomenology

regression 1802525 1 1802525 109142 0.005 0.526 0 .276

Error 4723420 286 16515

Total 6525944 287

experimental

neurosis

phenomenology

regression 2163713 2 1081856 70681 0.0005 0.756 0.322

Error 4362232 285 15306

Total 6525944 287

experimental

phenomenology

Neuroticism

Paranormal beliefs

regression 2320186 3 773395 52225 0.0005 0.576 0.356

error 4205758 284 14809

total 6525944 287

Table 3. Standard and nonstandard regression analysis to predict of anxiety through variables predicting

variables B B error Beta t p Zero-order

correlations

semi-partial

correlation

Separation

correlations

Fixed 0.987 0.1890 0.522 602

Experimental 0.382 0.052 0.393 0.7374 0.000 0.526 0.526 0.526

neurosis 0.189 0.037 0.273 05147 0.000 0.526 0412 0.370

paranormal -0.355 0.109 -0.156 -0.3251 0.001 0.442 0.277 0.235

Depression descriptive statistics are presented in

Table 4.

Regression test results are presented in Table 5.

As you can see in table 6, the p is less than 5 (p<.05).

Thus, studied variables have an impact on depression.

Beta coef cient is also positive for all experimental and

neurosis variables and negative for paranormal variable,

it means that with increasing experience, Neurosis the

depression increases and the depression decreases with

increasing of paranormal variable.

Descriptive statistics for stress variable is reported in

Table 7.

The results of the regression analysis are presented

in Table 8.

Sima Mortazavi

BIOSCIENCE BIOTECHNOLOGY RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS THE PREDICTION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS OF PRISONERS 15

Table 4. Descriptive  ndings of depression

mean standard deviation number

Depression 67326 465852 288

Neurosis 342708 690222 288

Extroversion 317813 427015 288

Experience 373194 372514 288

Agreeableness 402743 544063 288

Conscientiousness 439167 828887 288

Religious orientation 117813 309952 288

Empirical phenomenological 123750 490022 288

Spiritual well-being 139757 348857 288

Paranormal believes 138889 209400 288

Religiosity 114306 332167 288

Table 5. Summary statistics of regression and analysis of variance

model variables resources

sum of

squares

Degrees of

Freedom

Mean

Square

FPR

Squared R

Experimental

phenomenology

regression 1744065 1 1744065 111232 0.005 0.529 0 .280

Error 44844384 286 15680

Total 62288413 287

experimental

neurosis

phenomenology

regression 2023683 2 1011841 68583 0.0005 0.570 0.325

Error 42047 285 1475330

Total 6228413 287

experimental

phenomenology

Neuroticism

Paranormal beliefs

regression 2267554 3 755851 54196 0.0005 0.603 0.364

error 3960859 284 13947

total 6228413 287

Table 6. regression coef cient

variables B B error Beta t p

Zero-order

correlations

semi-partial

correlation

Separation

correlations

Fixed 2347 1735 1279 202

Experimental 383 50 403 7612 000 529 412 360

neurosis 169 36 251 4750 000 422 271 225

paranormal 443 106 199 4182 000 227 241 198

As you can see in table 9, the p is less than 5 (p<.05).

Thus, studied variables have an impact on stress. Beta

coef cient is also positive for experimental and neu-

rosis variables and negative for paranormal variable, it

means that with increasing experience and neurosis the

stress increases and the stress decreases with increasing

of paranormal variable

One of the  ndings from this study is that the depres-

sion increases by increasing the experimental phe-

nomenology of spirituality and neuroticism in term of

personality and decreases with the increasing of para-

normal variables. The present research  ndings on the

positive and signi cant relationship between neurosis

and depression are consistent with study the Momeni

Sima Mortazavi

16 THE PREDICTION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS OF PRISONERS BIOSCIENCE BIOTECHNOLOGY RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS

Table 7. Descriptive statistics for stress

mean standard deviation number

Stress 74007 471010 287

Neurosis 342439 689910 287

Extroversion 318014 426388 287

Experience 373136 373032 287

Agreeableness 402997 543307 287

Conscientiousness 438920 829265 287

Religious orientation 117735 310215 287

Empirical phenomenological 123884 488796 287

Spiritual well-being 139826 349271 287

Paranormal believes 138920 209699 287

Religiosity 114286 332730 287

Table 8. Summary statistics of regression and analysis of variance

model variables resources

sum of

squares

Degrees of

Freedom

Mean

Square

FPR

Squared

Experimental

phenomenology

regression 1756983 1 1756983 109143 0.005 0.526 0.277

Error 4587937 285 16098

Total 6344920 286

experimental

neurosis

phenomenology

regression 2302762 2 1151381 80895 0.0005 0.602 0362

Error 4042158 284 14233

Total 6344920 286

experimental

phenomenology

Neuroticism

Paranormal beliefs

regression 2444345 3 814782 59115 0.0005 0.621 0.385

error 3900575 283 13783

total 6644920 286

Table 9. standard and non-standard coef cients of regression analysis to predict stress through predicting

variables

variables B B error Beta t p

Zero-order

correlations

semi-partial

correlation

Separation

correlations

Fixed -0.163 1824 -0.89 0.929

Experimental 0.354 0.050 0.368 7065 0.000 0.526 0.387 0.329

neurosis 0.230 0.35 0.337 6497 0.000 0.493 0.360 0.303

paranormal -0.337 0.105 -0.15 -0.3205 0.002 -0.172 -0.187 -0.149

Sima Mortazavi

BIOSCIENCE BIOTECHNOLOGY RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS THE PREDICTION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS OF PRISONERS 17

et al (2012) that indicates the personality dimension pre-

dicts 44% of the variance in mental health. There was

a signi cant negative correlation between neuroticism

and mental health and a positive correlation between

openness and conscientiousness mental health was a

signi cant and between extraversion and agreeableness

was no signi cant relationship with mental health.

Beyrami and Gholizdeh (2011) in their study con-

cluded that experience in depressive symptoms were

signi cantly positively associated with neuroticism.

Studies show that people with high neuroticism evalu-

ate little negative stimuli just like strong negative pres-

sure. The results are consistent with the study of the

paranormal spirituality and depression by Ganji (2010)

so that shown that people who have high spiritual

level, have higher well-being and happiness, more life

satisfaction, and signi cantly higher purpose, higher

self-esteem, more rapid implementation of mourning,

receive more social support and less alone, less depres-

sion and faster recovery rates of depression, lower lev-

els of suicide, less anxiety, lower psychosis and more

marital stability. Kazemi, (2011) found a signi cant

relationship between depression and religious beliefs.

Bahrami (2012) also found that Meta-cognitive beliefs,

especially negative beliefs associated with non-control-

lability has the largest contribution in the prediction of

depression.

Another  nding of this study is that the anxiety

increases by increasing the experimental phenomenol-

ogy, neuroticism and paranormal beliefs. These results

are consistent with the Irani (2010), which found a posi-

tive and signi cant relationship between neuroticism

and anxiety. Steele et al (2008) found in a study in the

context of the relationship between personality traits

and well-being that personality traits were explained 39

to 63 percent of variance of well-being. In fact, people

that in the main dimensions of personality, extraversion

and conscientiousness are high and in the neuroticism

are low, have greater mental health. These results are

consistent with Ellison (2009). The results of the study

of the in uence of spirituality on anxiety are consistent

with Nelson (2002) that undoubtedly, faith is most effec-

tiveness treatment for anxiety. The results are consistent

with Mohr et al (2006) which in their study stated that

the presence of spiritual beliefs and participation in reli-

gious ceremonies resulted in decreased depression and

anxiety among the people

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