Psychological

Communication

Biosci. Biotech. Res. Comm. 10(3): 497-503 (2017)

Investigations on the relationship between perfectionism

and psychological needs with the perception of body

image in cosmetic surgery applicants

Soodabeh Yavari

* and Asghar Jafari

MA Student of Counseling and Guidance, Faculty of Human Science, Abhar Branch, Islamic Azad

University, Abhar, Iran

PhD, Faculty Member of Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran

ABSTRACT

Physical appearance is an important part of the body image because it is the  rst source of information which others use it for

social interactions with that individual. Every year tens of thousands are doing cosmetic surgery in order to eliminate dissatis-

faction with their appearance and sometimes to increase self-esteem. The aim of this research was to investigate the relation-

ship between perfectionism and psychological needs with the perception of body image in cosmetic (plastic) surgery applicants.

Research population consists of all the men and women who were applicants for cosmetic surgery and had recourse to beauty

clinic of Imam Khomeini hospital, Tehran, Iran. 200 individual samples were selected by availability sampling method. The method

of this paper was descriptive-analytical and data collection is done using questionnaire. data were analyzed using SPSS. Results

showed that there was a relationship between perfectionism and psychological needs with the perception of body image of cos-

metic surgery applicants. Psychological and perfectionism needs and also the perception of body image of women are different

from men’s. In addition, the negative characteristics of perfectionism have a larger share in cosmetic surgery applicants’ prediction

of body image perception.

KEY WORDS: PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS, PERFECTIONISM, THE PERCEPTION OF BODY IMAGE

497

ARTICLE INFORMATION:

*Corresponding Author: sodabehyavari95@gmail.com

Received 1

June, 2017

Accepted after revision 25

Sep, 2017

BBRC Print ISSN: 0974-6455

Online ISSN: 2321-4007 CODEN: USA BBRCBA

Thomson Reuters ISI ESC and Crossref Indexed Journal

NAAS Journal Score 2017: 4.31 Cosmos IF: 4.006

reserved.

Online Contents Available at: http//www.bbrc.in/

DOI: 10.21786/bbrc/10.3/24

Soodabeh Yavari and Asghar Jafari

INTRODUCTION

Physical appearance is an important part of the body

image because it is the  rst source of information which

others use it for social interactions with that individual.

There is no of cial statistics on cosmetic surgery in Iran.

According to unof cial statistics, every year, more than

36 thousands of Iranians do facial cosmetic surgery.

Among the performed cosmetic surgeries in Iran, rhino-

plasty is in the  rst place. According to unof cial sta-

tistics, from the numerical aspect of rhinoplasty, Iran is

the  rst in the world. After Iran, countries such as Amer-

ica, England, and partly France are in the next ranks.

Approximate statistics were only unof cial sources of

cosmetic surgery. Those people, who desire to do these

types of surgery but fear, should be added to this statis-

tics. The concept of an individual’s perception of their

body is an important part of their self-concept. The

body is the most visible part of ego and consciousness.

Body image is person’s internal visualization of external

appearance which includes representation of physical,

cognitive and attitudinal dimensions. The main dimen-

sions of this attitude consist of components like evalua-

tion and individual investment in dealing with schemes

of appearance and emotion which reveal the importance

of internalized appearance, (Sarwer, 2003, Cash, 2004,

Borzekowski, 2005, Balali, 2010, Weiss, 2013, Nerini,

2014).

In the twentieth century, especially in recent dec-

ades, new concepts of beauty have emerged and beauty

is de ned as a collection of components such as  t-

ness, makeup, clothes, attractiveness, and integrity. The

combination of beauty and industrial and also medi-

cal achievements has caused that now, beauty is not a

natural and biological characteristic anymore and it is

an adventitious trait. Nowadays, cosmetic surgery is as

one of the most common surgical procedure on a global

level that the use of which is growing. The main purpose

of cosmetic surgery is improving the appearance of the

person who has the abnormal appearance. When peo-

ple  nd out their physical properties are not in accord-

ance with those norms, may be offended and consider

the surgery as the  nal solution. Now, cosmetic surgery

becomes an agent charming and luxury-oriented means

to different people, and this has led to the establishment

of people’s unrealistic expectations and distortion of the

facts about its true nature, (Hilhorst, 2002, Pearl, 2003,

Hwang, 2004 Wolf, 2013).

These days, cosmetic surgery is taken into consid-

eration for creating beauty and desired image, so the

image of beauty as God’s natural creation is drawn to

adventitious and clinical beauty. With the increasing

demand for plastic surgery, several studies of this  eld

have introduced some effective factors on the desire to

these types of surgery. These factors are dissatisfaction

with body image, low attractiveness, psychological fac-

tors, body dysmorphic disorder, precedent of previous

cosmetic surgery, social and interpersonal factors such

as annoying appearance from the perspective of others,

surgical precedent of family and friends, cultural factors,

the impact of mass media advertising on TV, satellite,

magazines, movie stars, stress pressure, medical System

and beauty industries. At the end of the twentieth cen-

tury, a major concern about body image was clearly felt,

(Garrusi, 2013).

This concern has mainly surrounded women. Women

whose body image has much importance for them, dis-

content and dissatisfaction of appearance is associated

with their dissatisfaction of themselves and in general,

with their life. Orientation about beauty is in all social

situations. There is an irrational but  rm belief that

attractive people possess the other ideal characteristics

such as intelligence, adequacy, social skills, con dence

and even much moral values. Of course not surprising

that physical attractiveness is very important; however,

this as well as concerns about physical appearance is

not limited to this century and at any time and historical

period has been important and some criteria are deter-

mined for beauty and ugliness. Efforts of individuals

across the life is attempting to what look like to show

themselves in the best possible way. Physical appearance

affect on others, even if it be accepted that these effects

can be changed after the formation of communication

(Rumsey, 2004).

Ben eld and McCabe declared that body image has

three dimensions: perceptual-evaluation, emotional and

behavioral dimension. Perceptual-evaluation dimen-

sion refers to individuals’ measurement and evaluation

of their body. Feelings and emotions which individual

experiences from her body lies in emotional dimension;

and behavioral dimension focuses on the effect of per-

sons’ thoughts and emotions about their body on their

behavior (Ban eld, 2002).

Body image is consisting of two aspects: perceptual

aspect (individual’s evaluation of her body sizes) and

emotional-cognitive aspect (person’s attitude toward

her limbs). According to available  ndings, the assump-

tion is that when persons know their body lower than

ideal criteria, may encounter with inappropriate feelings

and attitudes about themselves like low self-esteem or

depression (Pesa, 2000) and in some cases even causes

a dropout. Cash introduced evaluation, emotion, and

investment as three main dimensions of body image

dimensions (Cash, 2004).

Socio-cultural theory as a prominent theory in the

 eld of body image, and by raising the social and cul-

tural variables on body image disorders, has received

much empirical and research support. Of course, most

498 INVESTIGATIONS ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERFECTIONISM AND PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS BIOSCIENCE BIOTECHNOLOGY RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS

BIOSCIENCE BIOTECHNOLOGY RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS INVESTIGATIONS ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERFECTIONISM AND PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS 499

Soodabeh Yavari and Asghar Jafari

of the studies have focused on women’s social and psy-

chological variables. This focus probably is due to the

high prevalence of body dissatisfaction and body image

disorders in women and young girls. The investigation

found that the incidence of physical ideal for women

is associated with their increasing body dissatisfac-

tion (Hargreaves, 2006). Studies show that awareness

and internalization of women’s ideal are predictors of

body dissatisfaction, body image, and a decrease of self-

esteem. Cosmetic surgery includes carrying out all cos-

metic surgery, including nose, eyelids, eyebrows, cheeks,

forehead, neck and body beauty which may change

(such as removing fat) or improve (e.g. dentures). Gen-

erally, cosmetic surgery refers to surgeries without the

special medical necessity that is done solely for cosmetic

purposes (Tavassoli, 2012).

Surgical breast implants in the United States is eight

times since 1992. Also in 2001, 1.6 million people have

been surgery Botox injections therein. This rise of sta-

tistics is also seen among the male population. In 2002,

the number of men who use Botox injection for less

showing their age has increased 88% and men who have

undergone rhinoplasty surgery has increased 47% (Ibid).

For years, the negative image of the body has known as

one of the reasons for resorting to plastic surgery. But

few types of research have studied body image after sur-

gery longitudinally. Sarwar and his colleagues in 2002

evaluated body image of patients before and after of

cosmetic surgery (Heyes, 2016). A signi cant decrease

of patients’ dissatisfaction of operated limb than before

the cosmetic surgery was reported. They also suffer less

embarrassment in front of others’ attention to that spe-

ci c limb or talking about it. But there was no change

in studied women’s general body image. These results

represented that people who undergo cosmetic surgery

are rarely signi cant changes in their general discon-

tent. Therefore, cosmetic surgery is a therapeutic plan

for people who are dissatis ed with just one part of their

body and face (Sarwer, 2003).

Many factors can contribute to the negative image

of the body, including physiological factors (such as

body mass index), psychological factors (like perfection-

ism, low self-esteem) and socio-cultural factors (such

as family, peers, and media). In the contexts of perfec-

tionism, both one-dimensional and multi-dimensional

approach to perfectionism can be seen (McGee, 2005).

Person-centered divisions of perfectionism are normal –

neurotic, satisfying- dissatisfying, and negative or posi-

tive perfectionism (Stoeber, 2007; Besharat, 2007). In the

framework of person-centered approach, in addition to

neurotic, abnormal and damaging roles of perfectionism

which are more known, its normal and desirable and also

positive effects are con rmed and clari ed (Slade, 1998).

According to this division, a normal perfectionist enjoys

effort and competition for superiority and perfection

and at the same time accept personal limits, although

neurotic perfectionist due to unrealistic expectations, do

not be satis ed with her performance (McGee, 2005).

Positive perfectionism: positive perfectionism (strive

for positive progress) is to Try to achieve high per-

sonal standards without self-criticism. This aspect is

not related to negative characteristics such as anxiety;

positive perfectionism mainly focuses on expectations

regarding progress, competition, capability, the excite-

ment of a work and satisfaction. On the other hand,

positive perfectionism is achieved by attaining positive

and motivation to access a certain goal so that it has

promising results (Haas, 2008). Despite the negative per-

fectionists (neuroticism), positive perfectionists (normal)

at the same time that impose high personal standards for

themselves, they can accept personal and environmen-

tal limitations and know their success, even if they do

not meet their personal standards exactly. This group of

perfectionists in an effort to succeed and achieving the

goals, in terms of the ability to accept personal limita-

tions and environmental barriers, can experience a sense

of satisfaction more (Besharat, 2007).

Negative perfectionism: negative perfectionism

dimension contains that form of perfectionism which

explains perfectionism concerns such as too much

attention to mistakes, doubts about negative actions

and reactions. This dimension is associated with anxi-

ety (Stoeber, 2007). Negative perfectionism is focused

on emotions like not meeting expectations of the indi-

vidual about herself and others, condemning, feeling

guilty, shame and defeating (Haas, 2008). In addition,

these persons strictly avoid failure and are vulnerable to

criticism of others. This group of perfectionists treats the

various spheres of social activity and relations as threat-

ening, procrustean and not supportive (Besharat, 2007).

The major difference between abnormal and dysfunc-

tional perfectionism and positive and normal perfection-

ism is that in the  rst group despite con icting evidence,

perfectionist tendencies are continued (Figure 1).

The concept of basic psychological needs is com-

pletely different with the theory of personal efforts and

wishes. Although people know the motivations as a

provision of basic needs, but it is clear that there are

many incentives that do not comply with the standards

of welfare; in fact, it may be harmful. In the other words,

may some incentives mislead the people about what can

resolve their requirements and it means misleading their

deviation of welfare? Even when people can satisfy their

motivations, again the motivation can be harmful to the

welfare if it barricades satisfying the needs of autonomy

and communication (Ryan, 2000; Sheldon, 2001). Unfor-

tunately, from the past till now there is little consensus

about the criteria of psychological needs, where they

Soodabeh Yavari and Asghar Jafari

originated, whether thy are result of learning in child-

hood or cultural differences, whether they are inherent

and universal and have been established by evolution

in man; These are questions that need to be asked about

(Sheldon, 2001). In this part, the importance of three

psychological needs namely autonomy, competence, and

relatedness are investigated. When people  nd them-

selves in an environment that helps them to develop

their psychological needs and also fosters them, positive

emotions, optimal experience, and healthy growth are

its consequences. Psychological needs are important for

the study of motivated behavior. The energy of psycho-

logical needs is pioneering. Psychological requirements

induce a desire to seek the environment that is expected

to bring up our needs (Azin, 2014).

Autonomy (independency): independency means per-

son’s need to electoral right and self-initiate for duties.

For example, when people from the satisfaction and

enthusiasm, spend their time and energy to study in

order to feel autonomy (Ryan, 2000). Need to autonomy

is a need to self-following and having the electoral right

at the beginning maintenance and tuning the activities.

Autonomy will happen when people feel the responsibil-

ity for their behavior, and con dent in their choices and

also the ability of eligible performance, (Sheldon, 2001).

Autonomy means feeling volition, having authority of

doing things, innate tendency for self-organized behav-

ioral experience (Sheldon, 2001). Autonomy is related to

freedom and experience of solidarity in personal behav-

iors.

Competence (adequacy): all people try and want to

be competent. All want to have fruitful interaction with

their environment and this interest is expanded to all

aspects of life such as school, workplace, relations, and

at the time of recreation and sport. All like to develop

some skills and enhance abilities and talents. When a

challenge is faced, all attention is focused on it. When

the opportunities to develop the skills and talents is

given all would like to progress. In these circumstances,

the result is a sense of satisfaction. In the other word,

human needs to competence; need to competence means

the ability of a person in doing duties and that person

have how much ability to achieve the desired objectives

(Mulder, 2007).

Relatedness (continuity): relatedness is a need to emo-

tional bonding with others and this need also expresses

the desire of being emotional and being involved in

intimate relationships. The requirement to relatedness

causes to leading to people who certainly care about

the well-being of a person and eschewing of people

who do not care about her welfare. Need to relatedness

is de ned as ensuring communication with others and

need to make self-experience as an individual worthy of

love and respect. In the other words, individual requires

to have a relationship with others and be supported by

them (Johnston, 2010).

FIGURE 1. Perfectionism features

500 INVESTIGATIONS ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERFECTIONISM AND PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS BIOSCIENCE BIOTECHNOLOGY RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS

BIOSCIENCE BIOTECHNOLOGY RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS INVESTIGATIONS ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERFECTIONISM AND PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS 501

Soodabeh Yavari and Asghar Jafari

Table 1. Summary of multiple regression analysis

Model R R

Justi ed R

Standard error

1 0.54 0.29 0.27 26.14

Table 2. Summary results of analysis of variance for signi cance of regression model

Source of changes Sum of squares Degrees of freedom Mean square F Signi cance level

Regression 49602.9 5 9920.58 14.51 0.001

remaining 116898.72 171 683.61

Total 166501.62 176

Table 3. Summary of regression coef cients for psychological and perfectionism needs

Final model

Regression

coef cient (B)

Standard

error

Standard

coef cient (Beta) t

Signi cance

level

Autonomy 0.13 0.36 0.03 1.35 0.72

Competence 0.48 0.40 0.10 1.20 0.23

Dependence 0.56 0.31 0.13 1.81 0.07

Positive

perfectionism

1.21 0.36 0.24 3.34 0.001

Negative

perfectionism

-0.68 0.13 -0.37 -5 0.001

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The method of this paper is descriptive–analytical and

data collection is done using questionnaire. For this pur-

pose, 200 men and women who were an applicant of

cosmetic surgery and had come to beauty clinic of Imam

Khomeini hospital in Tehran and were chosen using

availability sampling method. And also analyzing data

is done using the SPSS19 software.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In order to a comprehensive analysis of data, a statisti-

cal method of multiple regressions was used and data

was investigated based on  ndings and hypotheses. First

hypothesis: psychological and perfectionism needs pre-

dict the cosmetic surgery applicants’ perception of body

image. For determining the relationship between psy-

chological and perfectionism needs and cosmetic sur-

gery applicants’ perception of body image, multivariate

regression is used whose digest is reported in Table 1.

explain 20% of changes in cosmetic surgery applicants’

perception of body image.

As it is shown in Table 2, in the regression model,

psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and

dependence) and perfection (positive and negative) has a

signi cant relationship (F=14.51, P<0.01) with cosmetic

surgery applicants’ perception of body.The criterion

variable: perception of body image.Results of the Table

3 indicate the share of each variable in the prediction

of perception of body image model. As it is observable,

positive and negative perfectionism factors have a sig-

ni cant share in the prediction of “body image percep-

tion” and the largest coef cients of beta equal to -0.37

belongs to negative perfectionism. In the other words,

“negative perfectionism” factor has a stronger role in

the prediction of “body image perception” in cosmetic

surgery applicants.

Second hypothesis: psychological needs, perfection-

ism, and perception of body image of women and men

who are an applicant of cosmetic surgery are different.

At  rst, the assumption of equality of variances for psy-

chological needs, perfectionism, and perception of body

image was examined. As it is shown in Table 4, there

is an equal assumption for psychological needs, perfec-

tionism, and perception of the body of men and women

applicants of cosmetic surgery.

After determining variances equality assumption, for

comparing scores of psychological needs, perfection-

ism, and perception of body image of women samples,

student’s t-test was used for groups apart which results

are reported in the table. According to Table 5, because

signi cance level of “t” value (which is calculated by

comparing psychological needs, perfectionism, and per-

ception of image body of samples) is more than 0.05, the

fourth hypothesis was not con rmed. Therefore, it can

Predictor variables: psychological and perfectionism

needs Criterion variable: perception of body image. As

can be seen in the table, the intensity of the relationship

between psychological needs (autonomy, competence,

and dependence) and perfectionism (positive and nega-

tive) and cosmetic surgery applicants’ perception of the

body was calculated. Its value obtained 0.54 and they

502 INVESTIGATIONS ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERFECTIONISM AND PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS BIOSCIENCE BIOTECHNOLOGY RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS

Soodabeh Yavari and Asghar Jafari

be said that there is no signi cance relationship between

men’s and women’s (applicants of cosmetic surgery) psy-

chological needs, perfectionism, and perception of body.

DISCUSSION

According to the  ndings of this research, the  rst

hypothesis was con rmed, and it was concluded that

there is a signi cant relationship between psychological

needs, perfectionism, and perception of body image of

cosmetic surgery applicants. In addition, from predictive

variables, “negative perfectionism” factor has a more

effective role in the prediction of perception of body

image in cosmetic surgery applicants. This result cor-

responded with  ndings of Hass, and Von Soest (2009)

(Haas, 2008; Von Soest, 2009). Results of these studies

have shown that there is a relationship among cosmetic

surgery applicants’ psychological needs, perfectionism,

and perception of body image. The same as this research

that has shown that negative perfectionism feature has

more share in the prediction of body image in cosmetic

surgery applicants. Since perfectionism increases the

anxiety level and negative perfectionism leads people to

the inef cient and non-constructive behaviors, so it fur-

ther strengthens the basic needs of the motivational and

psychological tendency of people. In people who do not

have a favorable understanding of their own appearance,

choosing cosmetic surgery without a justi able medical

reason is a solution based on emotional copying style

(Nerini, 2014). It seems that the main motivational factor

for this action is a failure to satisfy basic psychological

needs. Awareness of this discontent is possible with a

focus on “self”. Intellectual challenges such as how peo-

ple think about us and our belief about how they will

behave have important implications on how we think

about ourselves. When a person expects to be rejected

for the sake of some of her features, she can choose

between several different possible answers that choos-

ing cosmetic surgery is one of these responses. Also in

the second hypothesis, it was concluded that there are

differences between men’s and women’s (cosmetic sur-

gery applicants) psychological needs, perfectionism, and

perception of body.

On the basis of  ndings of this research, the fourth

hypothesis was not con rmed and it was concluded that

there is no signi cant difference among psychological

needs, perfectionism and perception of the body of sam-

ples. This result corresponds with study results of Pasha,

Naderi and Akbari (2009) and sarwer (2005) (Naderi,

2008; Sarwer, 2005). Basic psychological requirements

and perfectionism characteristic of people, over time

and in the process of mental transformation, leading to

the formation and evolution of the cognitive, emotional

and behavioral characteristics. Accordingly, these fac-

tors will create inef cient perceptions of people toward

themselves and their environment and will have con-

cerns and con icts about their appearance in the future.

Therefore, men and women who were applicants of

cosmetic surgery, in most cases did it in uenced by the

same motivational factors (Webb, 2015).

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Table 4. Summary of results Levene test for equality

of variances

Variables F

Signi cance

level

Psychological

needs

Autonomy 0.16 0.68

Competence 0.33 0.56

Dependence 0.03 0.86

Perfectionism

Positive 0.58 0.29

Negative 0.17 1.85

Perception of

body image

0.74 0.10

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